Tags: global warming, paulownia, afforestation, reforestation, environment, carbon credits, CO2, ENOCIS, carbon offsetAs the effects of global warming continue to take their toll, the environmental experts are seemingly advising on afforestation as the only way out of the grim situation that we're facing. This is a biological control methodology that does not require a lot of resources to implement and maintain. Planting fast growing trees will restore our forest cover in rapid order, as we have no time to lose. There are several other trees in consideration, but only the Paulownia Tree has so many added advantages to offer humanity and the Earth.

Afforestation has a downside; its opposite is as we have seen is deforestation. We consume more wood than we sustain, and therefore cannot overlook the need for wood in any given case study. So how do we balance between afforestation to cater for the carbon offsets and the same for wood purposes? Paulownia Trees solves this puzzle with all the unique benefits that comes with its inception, we end up having an almost half to half winning situation on both carbon control and wood usage. These fast growing trees supply lumber, pulp and fuel at amazing rates of speed.

Paulownia Trees have a variety of advantages in forestry that covers most concerns mentioned which include, rapid growth that in just one year attains a height of 10-18 feet and within 6-10 years you have a fully grown shade tree that would normally take over 20 years to fully mature. Paulownia Trees have high carbon absorbing rate at 48 lbs per tree, and 13 tons of CO2 in each acre per year. When you cut down any of these fast growing trees, they are able to regenerate from the stump very fast, resuming growth immediately. Other benefits include, fire resistance at 477 degrees Celsius flash point, takes less years to harvest and do not twist or crack.

If we develop a good Paulownia Tree forest ratio that would cut across wood and carbon purification equally and maintain this consistently, then I would say we have the situation under control... although not fully solved. With all these wonderful things about them, we need to embrace this special species of fast growing trees without delay. Through continuing research and education, we would be able to realize the many benefits the Paulownia Tree has to offer the Earth. There may be even more amazing gifts found within Paulownia that we have yet to discover.

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Posted by panampro at 9:04 AM CDT

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Tags: paulownia, plantation, agro- forestry, agriculture, fodder, green manure, cattleWhen set out in a plantation design, Paulownia are planted closely in rows, and then thinned by the row, over a number of seasons. In the first year of growth, mid season, every second row is harvested as lightweight material for pole constructions and the like.

After having been cut, the stumps left in the ground will re-generate at a remarkable speed. The resultant growth is used as a cut-and-come-again source of green manure or fodder.

Early during the following growing season, the stumps fail due to over-competition from the remaining plantation, mainly this is a light requirement factor, or rather, lack thereof. The leaves are huge. Grazing animals are not allowed into the plantation at this time.

The following season, but later in, once again, the now second row  of standing timber (now about 6 inches thick) is harvested. The same process is followed; only, this harvested timber is quite valuable for cabinet making, veneers and such.

The resultant stumps are left in-situ to re-grow. At this size, once cut, the stump releases the majority of its stored nitrogen comparable with the loss of its biomass. This mass release is then taken up by the remaining trees.

Resultant re-growth, although a marvelous source of regenerating green manure or mulch - is more efficiently utilized as standing fodder for grazing animals, which in their turn add manure to the plantation.

For the next two seasons, or until the stumps cease fodder production due to over-competition, grazers are periodically allowed in to feed. Provided there is enough standing fodder, the animals will leave the bark on the timber trees alone, so damage to the trees is negligible.

After the fourth season, provided no inter-crop has been incorporated, grazers can generally be allowed into the plantation, to manage the proliferation of weed growth and add their manure to the system. These weeds tend to be soft due to the lower light conditions, therefore easily manageable by grazing stock. Although the understory does have lower light conditions, the overall effect is more akin to 'park-like conditions', rather than 'rain-forest conditions'.

More secondary rows may indeed be subsequently removed or not, depending on the overall plantation system plan and the quality of the Paulownia timber desired.

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Tags: : Paulownia tree, Waste Stream & Effluent Remediation Capabilities, Dairy Effluents, coppicing, nitrogen fixing plants, commercial timber, environmental benefits paulownia, biomass of paulownia, odor reducing, transpiration, disinfectant function of paulowniaThe following research was compiled to illustrate the ability of the Paulownia tree to phytoremediate extremely high strength waste from dairy and animal feeding operations.  As a result, other effluent waste streams such as municipal and residential wastewater can be remediated much easier and more efficiently than conventional animal waste.  Paulownia trees possibly provide an alternate method of absorbing treated effluents derived from municipalities and septic tank systems.

Paulownia Nutrient Utilization for Dairy Effluents

Research authored by:

Dr. Ben A. Bergmann,   Department of Forestry, North Carolina State University

Dr. Carl F. Jordon,   Senior Ecologist,   University of Georgia

Overview 1

Paulownia species grow rapidly, utilize large amounts of nitrogen (including other nutrients), coppice (stump sprout) and regrow rapidly, and have a variety of end uses. Large quantities of nutrients can be removed from animal waste applied to Paulownia trees because of their high biomass production and high foliar nutrient concentrations.   The coppicing ability of Paulownia eliminates the need to replant for several rotations; a considerable cost advantage over tree species that do not exhibit this trait. The ability to stump sprout prolifically is an asset in systems aimed at removal of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients via high biomass production because plants may be cut down more than once during the growing season. 

A Paulownia tree farm designed for commercial timber production at 1093 trees per acre will absorb 445 lbs. of nitrogen the first year, 668 lbs. the second year (thinned to 546 trees per acre), 735 lbs. the third year (thinned to 273 trees per acre), 804 lbs. the fourth year, 1166 lbs. the five year, 15,291 lbs, the sixth year, 1,964 lbs. the seventh year and 3,052 lbs. the tenth year.  In addition the crop of selection to be intercropped with the Paulownia will increase the amount of nitrogen uptake per acre. {i.e. grass (215 lbs. per acre) corn (265 lbs. per acre)}.

All calculations are based on a conservative value of 2% nitrogen in leaves and 0.2% nitrogen in wood. Actual nitrogen removal rates will likely exceed these estimates given in that is has been shown; that Paulownia elongata foliar nitrogen content can be much higher than 2%. (Bergmann et al. 1998, Kasy and Gouin 1996) and that denser plantings can be used.   As with any land application system, protection of surface and groundwater quality is dependent on matching wastewater application volume and concentration with the tree species planted, soil type and weather conditions.

The objective is to increase the environmental benefits of the Paulownia uptake application by bio stimulating the lagoons causing them to become aerobic and eliminate the odor emissions. It is further intended to sub terrain irrigate with the lagoon water reducing the amount of evaporation and the possibility of any odor emissions while providing the most beneficial usage of the nutrient water.

______________________________________________________________

1.  Section A, pages 18-19: Bergmann, Department of Forestry, North Carolina State University

Paulownia Qualities

Biomass Production of Paulownia

Biomass of Paulownia is the main component in a PCI (Paulownia-crop intercropping) system. The quantity of Paulownia biomass reflects the productivity and the flow of materials and energy of the PCI system. Biomass production (fresh weight and oven-dry weight) of Paulownia was investigated yearly from one to eight years after out planting, and the total biomass was divided into the following components - trunk (under crown), branches (big branches, medium branches and small branches), leaves leaf blades and stalks), bark, flower buds, flowers, fruits, roots (stock, thick roots, medium roots and small roots, and litter. The result of the biomass investigation is as follows:

Component of Paulownia Biomass

The biomasses of each part in and for the whole plant of a 3-year old Paulownia were ranked as roots, trunk and leaves.  After three years, the listing changed to branches and trunk, leaves, roots, flowers and fruits.  The root growth of Paulownia is more dominant than of other organs before it is 3-year old.  The growth of above-ground portion (trunk, leaves and branches) became faster with age of the tree.  The proportion of biomass of each organ to total biomass was 31.9%, 25.31%, 21.32%, 17.19%, 4.27% and 1.4% for trunks, leaves, branches, roots, flowers and fruits respectively.  Among which, the total amount of 30.98% of leaves, flowers and fruits fall off as litter.  The cumulative biomass of one Paulownia tree at eighth year was 607 lbs. dry weight. Correspondingly, the total biomass poundage per acre for different spacings of 8-year old Paulownia were estimated at 47,806, 23,890, 16,131, 11,950 and 9,561 lbs./acre of 5 x 10, 5 x 20, 5 x 30, 5 x 40 and 5 x 50 respectively.

Utilization of Paulownia biomass

As mentioned above, the biomass of trunk and branch was 53.22% of the total biomass. About 63.5% of the Paulownia biomass can be easily used as timber and firewood. The root biomass was 7% and of foliage 30%. Full use of the foliage will increase the economic value of Paulownia trees. The leaves drop off due to the effects of early frost not allowing enough time for the trees to transfer the nutrient matters from leaves to root for storage.  The nutrient status of the fallen leaves is close to that of the fresh leaves. Paulownia foliage can be used and the dropping off causes no harm to the growth of trees. The nutrient analysis of Paulownia foliage shows the presence of eight amino acids and trace elements such as Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn that are important to animal growth.

Paulownia is also a good nectariferous species. There is about 0.0236 g of pollen in a flower, from which 0.0473 g honey can be produced.  A standard group of bees can collect 22-33 lbs. of nectar during a flowering season.  To sum up, Paulownia has many suitable characteristics, such as fast growth, deep root distribution, sparse crown structure, multipurpose (timber, fodder, manure and nectar sources), use when grown in agro-forestry systems.

Ecological Effects on the Farming Fields

Soil Moisture and its Physical Features

Soil moisture was one of the main factors affecting soil fertility. The parameters related to the physical characteristics of soil moisture were observed because the physical property of soil moisture was closely related to the soil-ventilating feature.  The result indicated that the volume weight of upper soil layers (0-8 inches) decreased with increase of distance from the trees.

The maximum moisture holding capacity also increased with the distance from the trees. The volume weight of upper soil layer at 4 ft. to the tree rows was higher than the control (control means without Paulownia-crop intercropping).

Total Nutrients 2

Extensive aerobic treatment will reduce odor from the liquid waste from a confined animal operation. In the process, however, much of the nutrient value will be lost. For example, much of the organic content of manure will be lost as carbon dioxide; nitrogen will be converted to nitrate and subsequently may be reduced to nitrogen gas.

Water Status in PCI System

The soil moisture content of upper layer (0-24 inches) was 24.2% in PCI field and 24.2% in the control field. The content of lower layer (below 60 cm) was 28.7% in PCI field and 29.5% in the control field. The observations match with the features of root system of Paulownia. When the Paulownia trees are planted in farmland, there is no negative interaction between trees and crops in water intake.

Energy Balance and Evapotranspiration of PCI System

Through the systematic observations of total solar radiation, reflect radiation. wind velocity, temperatures (with wet and dry bulb thermometers), soil temperature and moisture contents of different layers in different PCI models, a description of energy balance of the PCI system was worked out. The net radiation and its components in a PCI system decreased when compared with control plots.  However, the proportion of heat flux to net radiation was reduced, while that of latent heat flux and soil heat flux increased The ratio of actual over potential evapotranspiration and soil moisture increased, resulting in less water deficit compared to control plots. Paulownia's effects on these parameters depended on the tree density and growth stage, and their relative distance from one another. The modified energy balance was favorable to wheat growth during its heading and flowering stages under any Paulownia spacings, but the effect on wheat growth during grain filling in denser Paulownia spacing was due to the greater reduction in net radiation, perhaps brought about by the protective effects of the fully developed leaves on trees.

Soil Nutrition Status

Organic matter and nitrogen contents at 0-8 inches below soil surface decreased toward the trees. There was not much difference detected in available P, Ca and Mg. But available K was apparently higher within 5 m from the trees than further distance from the trees. Continuous measurements for three years at the age of 9-11 years old showed that there was not much difference in N contents at 0-23 inches below soil surface in the PCI field, but N contents at 31-40 inches below soil surface at a distance of 20 feet from the trees significantly decreased while compared with the control.

This could explain that Paulownia trees utilized nutrients mostly from lower soil layer (31-40 inches). It was also found that seasonal variation of available Ca and Mg was similar with that of the control.  At 2 inches from the trees, however, it increased at 0-8 inches below soil surface perhaps due to the decomposition of Paulownia litter.

_________________________________________________________________________________

2.   Control of Odor Emissions from Animal Operations: Board of Governors of the University of North Carolina, page 22

ODOR REDUCTION DURING LAND APPLICATION 3

Land application of manure typically brings about the most complaints. Fortunately, odors from land application can virtually be eliminated by injection or immediate incorporation of the manure into the soil. These techniques also increase the amount of nitrogen and other nutrients available for crop uptake. Unfortunately, injection and incorporation are techniques most easily adapted to liquid manure application. Incorporation of solid manure typically requires another pass with some tillage implement. This is both time consuming and costly but is necessary to achieve effective odor control.

Another aspect of manure application that generates odors is the agitation of liquid manure storage facilities prior to manure removal. Agitation is necessary to reduce the solids buildup in storage, break up any surface crust, and evenly distribute the nutrients throughout the manure. Reports from many livestock producers suggest that some manure pit additives reduce solids buildup in the storage units. Although there is little university research to support this claim, this technique should be viewed as a possible odor control method. Chemical additives also have the potential to reduce specific gas formation such as hydrogen sulfide during agitation. These additives will have an immediate, short-term effect on gas emissions.

More research is needed to determine dosage rates and costs for this technology. The issue of reduction of odors and/or certain gases like hydrogen sulfide (especially in Minnesota due to the state regulatory agency's H2S emission standard) during manure storage agitation is very critical. Weather conditions, primarily wind speed/direction and humidity should be evaluated before manure is land applied to insure minimal impacts on neighbors and the public. The weather least suitable for spreading manure is high humidity and very light winds or clear, calm evenings. This condition prevents odors from dispersing and thus increases the chance of creating a nuisance or receiving a complaint

Chemical Activities of Soil

Enzyme, the biological catalyst extracted by microorganisms in their living activities, can accelerate the reactions of all biochemical activities of the soil. Results showed that at 0-8 inches below soil surface near the tree) showed more activity of invertase, hydrogen peroxidase, etc. which led to the increase of decomposition of organic matter, composition of humus and oxidation of other components to increase soil fertility.

_______________________________

3. Odor Control for Animal Agriculture, page 2

Paulownia Foliage as Manure 4

The above analysis shows that PCI caused crop-favored changes in soil properties and nutrient status. It should be noted that all the above changes occurred when Paulownia foliage (80%) was not collected from the field. Local farmers usually collect Paulownia leaves for fodder. If all the Paulownia leaves are left in the field as litter, this will lead to greater changes in soil property and nutrition status in PCI system.  The experiment of fertilization was conducted using 2.94 tons of dry Paulownia leaves applied to 2.5-acres open field.  The result indicated 30.6% increase of wheat yield and 19.8% increase of cotton yield.

Paulownia foliage is a very good resource for manure and fodder. According to a survey made, there were 24 million Paulownia trees in Luyi County of Shandong Province. The Paulownia trees produced 354,000 tons of leaves which contained about 9,310.2 tons of nitrogen, equal to 20,239.56 tons of urea, crude protein 57,723 tons and crude fat 36,679 tons, 23.244 tons of dry flowers were produced which contained about 1.036 tons of nitrogen, equal to 2,253.7 tons of urea and 6,427 tons of crude protein. The total from both leaves and flowers in the county led to 22,493 tons of urea.

Disinfectant Role of Leaf Secretion 4

The aim was to study the disinfectant role of Paulownia leaf and the possibility to use Paulownia trees in purifying air. This study needed high-level test conditions and so it was conducted in laboratory. The experimental results indicated that:

1.   The compounds volatilized from Paulownia leaves can kill Tubercle bacillus (with a rate of 100%). Among the 36 tree species tested, Paulownia, Sorbaria kirilowii and Hibiscus syriacus showed highest antibacterial effect.

2.   Paulownia had no effect on Staphylococcus aureus, but it was lethal to Psudomanas aeruginosa (38.8%).

3.   Paulownia leaf paste had strongest effect to kill flies among the 20 tree species tested.

Portions of the Complete Study were Condensed & Edited for Republication Purposes

____________________________________________________________________

4.   Evaluation and Model Optimization of Paulownia Inter-Cropping System-A Project Summary Report, 

      International Development Research Centre, Page 9Tags

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Posted by panampro at 5:47 PM CST

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Tags: Paulownia tree, Waste Stream & Effluent Remediation Capabilities, Dairy Effluents, coppicing, nitrogen fixing plants, commercial timber, environmental benefits paulownia, biomass of paulownia, odor reducing, transpiration, disinfectant function of paulownia The following research was compiled to illustrate the ability of the Paulownia tree to phytoremediate extremely high strength waste from dairy and animal feeding operations.  As a result, other effluent waste streams such as municipal and residential wastewater can be remediated much easier and more efficiently than conventional animal waste.  VLIC is proud to introduce Paulownia MEGAFLORA trees as a proven method of absorbing treated effluents derived from municipalities and septic tank systems.

Paulownia Nutrient Utilization for Dairy Effluents

Research authored by:

Dr. Ben A. Bergmann,   Department of Forestry, North Carolina State University

Dr. Carl F. Jordon,   Senior Ecologist,   University of Georgia

Overview 1

Paulownia species grow rapidly, utilize large amounts of nitrogen (including other nutrients), coppice (stump sprout) and regrow rapidly, and have a variety of end uses. Large quantities of nutrients can be removed from animal waste applied to Paulownia trees because of their high biomass production and high foliar nutrient concentrations.   The coppicing ability of Paulownia eliminates the need to replant for several rotations; a considerable cost advantage over tree species that do not exhibit this trait. The ability to stump sprout prolifically is an asset in systems aimed at removal of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients via high biomass production because plants may be cut down more than once during the growing season. 

A Paulownia tree farm designed for commercial timber production at 1093 trees per acre will absorb 445 lbs. of nitrogen the first year, 668 lbs. the second year (thinned to 546 trees per acre), 735 lbs. the third year (thinned to 273 trees per acre), 804 lbs. the fourth year, 1166 lbs. the five year, 15,291 lbs, the sixth year, 1,964 lbs. the seventh year and 3,052 lbs. the tenth year.  In addition the crop of selection to be intercropped with the Paulownia will increase the amount of nitrogen uptake per acre. {i.e. grass (215 lbs. per acre) corn (265 lbs. per acre)}.

All calculations are based on a conservative value of 2% nitrogen in leaves and 0.2% nitrogen in wood. Actual nitrogen removal rates will likely exceed these estimates given in that is has been shown; that Paulownia elongata foliar nitrogen content can be much higher than 2%. (Bergmann et al. 1998, Kasy and Gouin 1996) and that denser plantings can be used.   As with any land application system, protection of surface and groundwater quality is dependent on matching wastewater application volume and concentration with the tree species planted, soil type and weather conditions.

VLIC, purposes to increase the environmental benefits of the Paulownia uptake application by bio stimulating the lagoons causing them to become aerobic and eliminate the odor emissions. Further EB intends to sub terrain irrigate with the lagoon water reducing the amount of evaporation and the possibility of any odor emissions while providing the most beneficial usage of the nutrient water.

______________________________________________________________

1.  Section A, pages 18-19: Bergmann, Department of Forestry, North Carolina State University

Paulownia Qualities

Biomass Production of Paulownia

Biomass of Paulownia is the main component in a PCI (Paulownia-crop intercropping) system. The quantity of Paulownia biomass reflects the productivity and the flow of materials and energy of the PCI system. Biomass production (fresh weight and oven-dry weight) of Paulownia was investigated yearly from one to eight years after out planting, and the total biomass was divided into the following components - trunk (under crown), branches (big branches, medium branches and small branches), leaves leaf blades and stalks), bark, flower buds, flowers, fruits, roots (stock, thick roots, medium roots and small roots, and litter. The result of the biomass investigation is as follows:

Component of Paulownia Biomass

The biomasses of each part in and for the whole plant of a 3-year old Paulownia were ranked as roots, trunk and leaves.  After three years, the listing changed to branches and trunk, leaves, roots, flowers and fruits.  The root growth of Paulownia is more dominant than of other organs before it is 3-year old.  The growth of above-ground portion (trunk, leaves and branches) became faster with age of the tree.  The proportion of biomass of each organ to total biomass was 31.9%, 25.31%, 21.32%, 17.19%, 4.27% and 1.4% for trunks, leaves, branches, roots, flowers and fruits respectively.  Among which, the total amount of 30.98% of leaves, flowers and fruits fall off as litter.  The cumulative biomass of one Paulownia tree at eighth year was 607 lbs. dry weight. Correspondingly, the total biomass poundage per acre for different spacings of 8-year old Paulownia were estimated at 47,806, 23,890, 16,131, 11,950 and 9,561 lbs./acre of 5 x 10, 5 x 20, 5 x 30, 5 x 40 and 5 x 50 respectively.

Utilization of Paulownia biomass

As mentioned above, the biomass of trunk and branch was 53.22% of the total biomass. About 63.5% of the Paulownia biomass can be easily used as timber and firewood. The root biomass was 7% and of foliage 30%. Full use of the foliage will increase the economic value of Paulownia trees. The leaves drop off due to the effects of early frost not allowing enough time for the trees to transfer the nutrient matters from leaves to root for storage.  The nutrient status of the fallen leaves is close to that of the fresh leaves. Paulownia foliage can be used and the dropping off causes no harm to the growth of trees. The nutrient analysis of Paulownia foliage shows the presence of eight amino acids and trace elements such as Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn that are important to animal growth.

Paulownia is also a good nectariferous species. There is about 0.0236 g of pollen in a flower, from which 0.0473 g honey can be produced.  A standard group of bees can collect 22-33 lbs. of nectar during a flowering season.  To sum up, Paulownia has many suitable characteristics, such as fast growth, deep root distribution, sparse crown structure, multipurpose (timber, fodder, manure and nectar sources), use when grown in agro-forestry systems.

Ecological Effects on the Farming Fields

Soil Moisture and its Physical Features

Soil moisture was one of the main factors affecting soil fertility. The parameters related to the physical characteristics of soil moisture were observed because the physical property of soil moisture was closely related to the soil-ventilating feature.  The result indicated that the volume weight of upper soil layers (0-8 inches) decreased with increase of distance from the trees.

The maximum moisture holding capacity also increased with the distance from the trees. The volume weight of upper soil layer at 4 ft. to the tree rows was higher than the control (control means without Paulownia-crop intercropping).

Total Nutrients 2

Extensive aerobic treatment will reduce odor from the liquid waste from a confined animal operation. In the process, however, much of the nutrient value will be lost. For example, much of the organic content of manure will be lost as carbon dioxide; nitrogen will be converted to nitrate and subsequently may be reduced to nitrogen gas.

Water Status in PCI System

The soil moisture content of upper layer (0-24 inches) was 24.2% in PCI field and 24.2% in the control field. The content of lower layer (below 60 cm) was 28.7% in PCI field and 29.5% in the control field. The observations match with the features of root system of Paulownia. When the Paulownia trees are planted in farmland, there is no negative interaction between trees and crops in water intake.

Energy Balance and Evapotranspiration of PCI System

Through the systematic observations of total solar radiation, reflect radiation. wind velocity, temperatures (with wet and dry bulb thermometers), soil temperature and moisture contents of different layers in different PCI models, a description of energy balance of the PCI system was worked out. The net radiation and its components in a PCI system decreased when compared with control plots.  However, the proportion of heat flux to net radiation was reduced, while that of latent heat flux and soil heat flux increased The ratio of actual over potential evapotranspiration and soil moisture increased, resulting in less water deficit compared to control plots. Paulownia's effects on these parameters depended on the tree density and growth stage, and their relative distance from one another. The modified energy balance was favorable to wheat growth during its heading and flowering stages under any Paulownia spacings, but the effect on wheat growth during grain filling in denser Paulownia spacing was due to the greater reduction in net radiation, perhaps brought about by the protective effects of the fully developed leaves on trees.

Soil Nutrition Status

Organic matter and nitrogen contents at 0-8 inches below soil surface decreased toward the trees. There was not much difference detected in available P, Ca and Mg. But available K was apparently higher within 5 m from the trees than further distance from the trees. Continuous measurements for three years at the age of 9-11 years old showed that there was not much difference in N contents at 0-23 inches below soil surface in the PCI field, but N contents at 31-40 inches below soil surface at a distance of 20 feet from the trees significantly decreased while compared with the control.

This could explain that Paulownia trees utilized nutrients mostly from lower soil layer (31-40 inches). It was also found that seasonal variation of available Ca and Mg was similar with that of the control.  At 2 inches from the trees, however, it increased at 0-8 inches below soil surface perhaps due to the decomposition of Paulownia litter.

_________________________________________________________________________________

2.   Control of Odor Emissions from Animal Operations: Board of Governors of the University of North Carolina, page 22

ODOR REDUCTION DURING LAND APPLICATION 3

Land application of manure typically brings about the most complaints. Fortunately, odors from land application can virtually be eliminated by injection or immediate incorporation of the manure into the soil. These techniques also increase the amount of nitrogen and other nutrients available for crop uptake. Unfortunately, injection and incorporation are techniques most easily adapted to liquid manure application. Incorporation of solid manure typically requires another pass with some tillage implement. This is both time consuming and costly but is necessary to achieve effective odor control.

Another aspect of manure application that generates odors is the agitation of liquid manure storage facilities prior to manure removal. Agitation is necessary to reduce the solids buildup in storage, break up any surface crust, and evenly distribute the nutrients throughout the manure. Reports from many livestock producers suggest that some manure pit additives reduce solids buildup in the storage units. Although there is little university research to support this claim, this technique should be viewed as a possible odor control method. Chemical additives also have the potential to reduce specific gas formation such as hydrogen sulfide during agitation. These additives will have an immediate, short-term effect on gas emissions.

More research is needed to determine dosage rates and costs for this technology. The issue of reduction of odors and/or certain gases like hydrogen sulfide (especially in Minnesota due to the state regulatory agency's H2S emission standard) during manure storage agitation is very critical. Weather conditions, primarily wind speed/direction and humidity should be evaluated before manure is land applied to insure minimal impacts on neighbors and the public. The weather least suitable for spreading manure is high humidity and very light winds or clear, calm evenings. This condition prevents odors from dispersing and thus increases the chance of creating a nuisance or receiving a complaint

Chemical Activities of Soil

Enzyme, the biological catalyst extracted by microorganisms in their living activities, can accelerate the reactions of all biochemical activities of the soil. Results showed that at 0-8 inches below soil surface near the tree) showed more activity of invertase, hydrogen peroxidase, etc. which led to the increase of decomposition of organic matter, composition of humus and oxidation of other components to increase soil fertility.

_______________________________

3. Odor Control for Animal Agriculture, page 2

Paulownia Foliage as Manure 4

The above analysis shows that PCI caused crop-favored changes in soil properties and nutrient status. It should be noted that all the above changes occurred when Paulownia foliage (80%) was not collected from the field. Local farmers usually collect Paulownia leaves for fodder. If all the Paulownia leaves are left in the field as litter, this will lead to greater changes in soil property and nutrition status in PCI system.  The experiment of fertilization was conducted using 2.94 tons of dry Paulownia leaves applied to 2.5-acres open field.  The result indicated 30.6% increase of wheat yield and 19.8% increase of cotton yield.

Paulownia foliage is a very good resource for manure and fodder. According to a survey made, there were 24 million Paulownia trees in Luyi County of Shandong Province. The Paulownia trees produced 354,000 tons of leaves which contained about 9,310.2 tons of nitrogen, equal to 20,239.56 tons of urea, crude protein 57,723 tons and crude fat 36,679 tons, 23.244 tons of dry flowers were produced which contained about 1.036 tons of nitrogen, equal to 2,253.7 tons of urea and 6,427 tons of crude protein. The total from both leaves and flowers in the county led to 22,493 tons of urea.

Disinfectant Role of Leaf Secretion 4

The aim was to study the disinfectant role of Paulownia leaf and the possibility to use Paulownia trees in purifying air. This study needed high-level test conditions and so it was conducted in laboratory. The experimental results indicated that:

1.   The compounds volatilized from Paulownia leaves can kill Tubercle bacillus (with a rate of 100%). Among the 36 tree species tested, Paulownia, Sorbaria kirilowii and Hibiscus syriacus showed highest antibacterial effect.

2.   Paulownia had no effect on Staphylococcus aureus, but it was lethal to Psudomanas aeruginosa (38.8%).

3.   Paulownia leaf paste had strongest effect to kill flies among the 20 tree species tested.

Portions of the Complete Study were Condensed & Edited for Republication Purposes

____________________________________________________________________

4.   Evaluation and Model Optimization of Paulownia Inter-Cropping System-A Project Summary Report, 

      International Development Research Centre, Page 9

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Posted by panampro at 6:38 AM CST

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Tags: global warming, greenhouse gases, CER, carbon credits, reforestation, deforestation, paulownia, Panama Mankind is feeling the wrath of nature. It seems that more and more natural disasters are taking place; and this has led to consciousness about the earth’s resources. Forests are the most affected ecosystem in the planet. This is probably due to the fact that basic necessities need trees as a raw material.

What is even more appalling is man’s desire for wider land areas, so they cut off more trees in order to convert the area into a housing community or subdivision; and an agricultural land or worse, a dump site – this perhaps can be the answer to what is deforestation.

By Definition
By definition, deforestation means the cutting or removal of trees from woodlands or forests in order to convert the land into commercial or logging reasons or for whatever purpose it may serve them. Generally, deforestation denotes the extraction of trees without sufficient reforestation or effort to replant a tree elsewhere to replace the one that has been cut.

Since time immemorial, man has been making the environment adapt to the civilizations’ growing needs. First it was cutting trees down to use for kindling, next it was for shelter, and then for paper and other products. Thousands of forests have been cleared all over the world to pave way for man’s innovations and spatial requirements. It seems that forests are present to cater to man’s needs and whims.

Raising Consciousness
It is human nature to be moved into action when our sense of well being becomes endangered. This is undoubtedly the reason why most people are becoming concerned over deforestation.

The easiest way to make people care is to emphasize the benefits of forests and woodland, and to show how its depletion will radically change our lives for the worst. First off, deforestation revolves around a number of issues but none as totally important as the two key subjects that we must be aware of: the primary concern is global warming or green house effect, the secondary matter is the question of whether the trees are utilized properly and if reforestation efforts are being made.

Trees absorb carbon dioxide, helping reduce the amount of carbon released into our atmosphere. Deforestation kills the trees that help prevent greenhouse effect. Green house effect accounts for the Earth’s over all temperature rises, thus causing bizarre weather patterns. That is why the frequency of droughts, floods, tidal waves, and other natural disasters have risen.

The second concern is that the trees being cleared to pave way for metropolis are simply slashed and burned. Aside from the excessive emission of carbon dioxide brought about by burning wood, there is the apprehension that the trees would have been put to better use providing shelter for the homeless, building materials or other useful undertakings. The subsequent effects are truly devastating. Who knew that deforestation can cause so much head ache?

Yes, who knew? If only people have taken the time to inform themselves then they would have been able to make informed decisions and fight for what is right.

What Can You Do To Help?
Since you are now knowledgeable of what is deforestation, it would be of much help to lead in the initial steps to change. Are you thinking what a lowly individual can do to help? Well, small steps make a huge difference especially when everyone is working at the same goal. Armed with the knowledge of the disasters that deforestation can bring about will definitely make a person regulate his or her actions.

Start by conserving the most basic of household materials like paper towels, napkins and tissue papers. Recycling and knowing how to recycle materials will greatly help find a solution to green house emissions. Next is to be pro active and help educate other people by joining campaign groups who fight against deforestation.

Generally you don’t have to be like a crazy person shouting at the streets and joining rallies, begin by changing your attitude and outlook and then you will see that little things do make a difference.

You might also consider in investing in reforestation projects. One of the most productive is a paulownia reforestation project in Panama which not only helps to save the environment, puts money in your pocket but provides jobs and social development for peoples of extreme poverty. Information may be found at www.panampro.com

To help you decide if paulownia investment is right for you, you might want to read www.paulownianow.org After Copenhagen, the world’s attention has turned to carbon credits and pollution. To see how paulownia is being used to counteract the effects of carbon pollution and excellent informational site may be found at www.paulowniapanama.org  

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Posted by panampro at 6:54 AM CST

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With the world’s wood supplies diminishing, it’s important to find a suitable alternative for making wooden items such as shutters that won’t have a detrimental effect on the world’s wood supplies or our environment.

Paulownia is the latest choice for manufacturing interior window shutters, as its ideal for making lightweight yet strong plantation shutters. However, this also has an added benefit, as it comes from sustainable sources. It provides all the benefit of traditional wood, but has a number of additional features which other woods don’t have. In particular its weight to strength ratio means that it makes an ideal choice for manufacturing.

Hard Wearing, Lightweight and Safe

Paulownia is less likely than more traditional woods to shrink or warp. As it is engineered in the manufacturing of interior window shutters, ensuring it is particularly strong, making it ideal to use for large shutters. Those offering Paulownia interior window shutters are able to provide greater guarantees than before, both for larger shutters and also increased folding options. For those want interior window shutters to cover large openings Paulownia is a perfect yet cost effective material to select.

Paulownia is also rot-resistant due to its low moisture content, but most importantly fire-retardant as it ignition point is higher than some traditional woods. This makes it a great choice for use in the home.

Appearance

Paulownia has a similar appearance to white ash, making it perfect to stain to resemble other woods such as mahogany or oak. The grains running through it are straight and easily visible, creating a beautiful texture for interior window shutters.

The Paulownia Plant

Paulownia trees are native to China, although they have been cultivated across other parts of Eastern Asia. The trees themselves can grow up to 25m tall and have flowers similar to foxgloves. In China they have also been used to reforest some areas, and their deciduous leaves appear on the badge of Japans government.

Eco-Friendly

The Paulownia tree is able to regenerate from its old stump, so it can be harvested in a similar fashion to Willow. This regeneration has led to them being known as the phoenix tree. The trees are quick growing, being ready for harvest within 5 to 7 years so that their wood can be used for manufacturing products such as interior window shutters. The tree also has the ability to help poor soil affected by industrialization, as its root systems run deep but are able to deal with contaminants and convert them into something more suitable for the environment. Their large leaves also play a part in the process by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and converting it to oxygen which is then released. An important process when many of our forests that would normally do this are disappearing.

Uses

Paulownia is ideal for manufacturing interior window shutters, which require strength, resistance to warping, twisting, and moisture and yet remain lightweight. Appearance is also important, as those who choose shutters also want to be sure that their product has a beautiful wooden finish whether stained or painted. Paulownia offers all of these yet allow the purchaser to make an ecologically friendly choice. There are a range of things that are currently made from Paulownia, including coffins, furniture and guitars. Its uses are many and diverse, but it makes the perfect wood to choose if you are looking for beautiful interior window shutters.

For more information consult www.paulownianow.org

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Posted by panampro at 6:30 AM CST

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Tags: Anti-herbivore defense, dendritic trichome, extrafloral nectary, flavonoids, glandular hair, glycerides, indirect defense, leaf development, morphology, optimal defense hypothesis, Paulownia tomentosa, shoot development, paulownia Panama

Sawa Kobayashi^1,*, Teigo Asai², Yoshinori Fujimoto² and Shiro Kohshima¹

¹Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology
² Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Meguro, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan

Background and Aims: Recent studies have shown that small structures on plant surfaces serve ecological functions such as resistance against herbivores. The morphology, distribution, chemical composition and changes during shoot and leaf development of such small structures were examined on Paulownia tomentosa.

Methods: The morphology and distribution of the structures were studied under light microscopy, and their chemical composition was analyzed using thin-layer chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography. To further investigate the function of these structures, several simple field experiments and observations were also conducted.

Key Results: Three types of small structures on P. tomentosa were investigated: bowl-shaped organs, glandular hairs and dendritic trichomes. The bowl-shaped organs were densely aggregated on the leaves near flower buds and were determined to be extrafloral nectarines (EFNs) that secrete sugar and attract ants. Nectar production of these organs was increased by artificial damage to the leaves, suggesting an anti-herbivore function through symbiosis with ants. Glandular hairs were found on the surfaces of young and/or reproductive organs. Glandular hairs on leaves, stems and flowers secreted mucilage containing glycerides and trapped small insects. Secretions from glandular hairs on flowers and immature fruits contained flavonoids, which may provide protection against some herbivores. Yellow dendritic trichomes on the adaxial side of leaves also contained flavonoids identical to those secreted by the glandular hairs on fruits and flowers. Three special types of leaves, which differed from the standard leaves in shape, size and identity of small structures, developed near young shoot tips or young flower buds. The density of small structures on these leaf types was higher than on standard leaves, suggesting that these leaf types may be specialized to protect young leaves or reproductive organs. Changes in the small structures during leaf development suggested that leaves of P. tomentosa are primarily protected by glandular hairs and dendritic trichomes at young stages and by the EFNs at mature stages.

Conclusions: The results indicate that P. tomentosa protects young and/or reproductive organs from herbivores through the distribution and allocation of small structures, the nature of which depends on the developmental stage of leaves and shoots.

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Posted by panampro at 4:38 AM CST

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Emissions’ trading is a means of achieving environmental objectives at potentially lower cost than the more traditional use of uniform standards on emissions sources. Properly designed emissions trading systems can also encourage innovation.

A number of different types of emissions trading approaches have been used in the United States and elsewhere. The least structured, termed emission “offsets,” involves a reduction of emissions at one place to compensate for increased emissions somewhere else. Such offsets can be between different plants or different sources within the same plant. Offsets can be particularly useful in allowing new or expanded sources of pollution to exist in a region already failing to meet its environmental objectives.

A more ambitious approach, which requires additional governmental infrastructure, is the open-market trading system. This approach allows a pollution source to earn marketable emission rights by reducing its emissions to levels below a regulatory standard or by making reductions in advance of a prescribed deadline. The credits earned may be sold to other sources and used to offset an equal amount of excess emissions. The credits may also be resold or (where allowed) banked for future use. Open-market trading has not been formally implemented in the United States.

Still more ambitious, flexible, and demanding in terms of government infrastructure is a cap-and-trade system, where sources in an area may trade pollution reduction responsibilities among themselves to meet an aggregate emissions cap for a given region. Under this system, the regulatory authorities decide on the aggregate level of allowable emissions for all the parties participating in the program (the "cap") and then it allocates to each party a portion of this amount in the form of "allowances," which are tradable rights to pollute. Once allowances are allocated, parties are prohibited from emitting more pollution than their allocation, unless they purchase additional allowances from another party.

The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) acid rain program, widely hailed a success from both environmental and economic perspectives, is the most prominent example of the cap-and-trade type of emissions trading. Emission reductions are ahead of schedule and the costs are considerably lower than anticipated.

Emissions’ trading has several potential advantages compared to traditional regulatory approaches. Firms are free to use the options they believe to be most cost-effective, and they do not need to seek approval from government authorities or engage in lengthy negotiations about the "appropriateness" of their actions. At the same time, some remain skeptical of emissions trading, on both ethical and technical grounds. One thing that is widely agreed upon is that credible monitoring systems are essential to ensure the environmental integrity of emissions trading regimes.

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Posted by panampro at 6:58 AM CST

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Tags:Tags: paulownia, lumber characteristics, paulownia strength, balsa, aluminum of hardwood, conductivity, fire resistant, insect resistant

Lightweight

Paulownia is about 2/3 the weight of the lightest commercial wood grown in the US. It weighs an average of 14 to 19 lbs per cubic foot.  Paulownia is almost 1/3 the weight of Oak (44 lbs p/cubic ft) and half the weight of Pine (30 lbs p/cubic ft).

The specific gravity of Paulownia ranges between 0.23 to 0.30 (23 to 30% of the density of water).

Strength

Paulownia has one of the highest strength to weight ratios of any wood.

Strength modus of rupture MOR (psi) of Paulownia is 5740.

Paulownia holds nails and screws well and does not require pilot holes to be drilled. In fact both yellow poplar and white pine have proven to split before Paulownia. Flat head screws can be driven flush with the surface.

Plantation grown Paulownia is mostly knot free, making it very consistent.

Workability

Paulownia has been widely used in the orient for fine furniture, musical instruments, carvings and decorative finishes for over 1000 years. It can be peeled for veneer in 1/16 inch thickness and has even been sliced at 1/32 inch.

Intricate patterns can be cut with a jig saw or band saw without splitting easily. Paulownia has been a favorite for many carvers in the US. Furniture, doors and windows can be made with close tolerances. All normal finishing materials can be applied and it bonds well with glue.

Stability

Air-drying takes as little as 30 days. Boards can be kiln dried at high temperatures in as little as 24 hours to 10% to 12% moisture content with no warping. Reported shrinkage from green to oven-dry is only 2.2% radial and 4.0% tangential.

Paulownia remains stable during changes in humidity and experiences little shrinkage or expansion compared to most other woods. It is highly durable and resists decay under non-ground contact conditions. The wood is insect resistant.

Conductivity

Paulownia is a very good insulator. Paulownia log homes are said to have twice the R factor as pine or oak logs. This temperature resistance serves to give the wood a high fire resistance. Ignition temperature is approximately 400 deg. C. which is almost twice many conventional American hard and soft woods.

Attractiveness

Paulownia has a light blond appearance and resembles White Ash. It stains well with a variety of colors and can be made to mimic other woods. Once planed a silky luster is revealed. The feel is also very silky.

For more information on paulownia or to purchase paulownia seeds or seedlings (elongata, fortunei, tomentosa) please refer to http://www.paulownianow.org or http://www.panampro.com

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Posted by panampro at 10:22 AM CDT

Updated: Sunday, 9 August 2009 10:44 AM CDT

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Tags: paulownia, lumber characteristics, paulownia strength, balsa, aluminum of hardwood, conductivity, fire resistant, insect resistant

Lightweight

Paulownia is about 2/3 the weight of the lightest commercial wood grown in the US. It weighs an average of 14 to 19 lbs per cubic foot.  Paulownia is almost 1/3 the weight of Oak (44 lbs p/cubic ft) and half the weight of Pine (30 lbs p/cubic ft).

The specific gravity of Paulownia ranges between 0.23 to 0.30 (23 to 30% of the density of water).

Strength

Paulownia has one of the highest strength to weight ratios of any wood.

Strength modus of rupture MOR (psi) of Paulownia is 5740.

Paulownia holds nails and screws well and does not require pilot holes to be drilled. In fact both yellow poplar and white pine have proven to split before Paulownia. Flat head screws can be driven flush with the surface.

Plantation grown Paulownia is mostly knot free, making it very consistent.

Workability

Paulownia has been widely used in the orient for fine furniture, musical instruments, carvings and decorative finishes for over 1000 years. It can be peeled for veneer in 1/16 inch thickness and has even been sliced at 1/32 inch.

Intricate patterns can be cut with a jig saw or band saw without splitting easily. Paulownia has been a favorite for many carvers in the US. Furniture, doors and windows can be made with close tolerances. All normal finishing materials can be applied and it bonds well with glue.

Stability

Air-drying takes as little as 30 days. Boards can be kiln dried at high temperatures in as little as 24 hours to 10% to 12% moisture content with no warping. Reported shrinkage from green to oven-dry is only 2.2% radial and 4.0% tangential.

Paulownia remains stable during changes in humidity and experiences little shrinkage or expansion compared to most other woods. It is highly durable and resists decay under non-ground contact conditions. The wood is insect resistant.

Conductivity

Paulownia is a very good insulator. Paulownia log homes are said to have twice the R factor as pine or oak logs. This temperature resistance serves to give the wood a high fire resistance. Ignition temperature is approximately 400 deg. C. which is almost twice many conventional American hard and soft woods.

Attractiveness

Paulownia has a light blond appearance and resembles White Ash. It stains well with a variety of colors and can be made to mimic other woods. Once planed a silky luster is revealed. The feel is also very silky.

For more information on paulownia or to purchase paulownia seeds or seedlings (elongata, fortunei, tomentosa) please refer to http://www.paulownianow.org or http://www.panampro.com

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Posted by panampro at 10:22 AM CDT

Updated: Sunday, 9 August 2009 10:52 AM CDT

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